Literature Review

LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review is designed to investigate previous research that has been undertaken to help aid in the creation of my IRP: “to what extend does the media influence the formation of youth’s identity.” By analysing different forms of literature in depth, this has allowed myself to gain a deeper understanding into the topic that I have chosen, to assist in the further completion of my IRP.

According to Essena O’Niell/www.letsbegamechangers.com (Date: 11/2015) states that she doesn’t agree with social media as it currently stands.

Society currently creates validation among our community based on “likes” and “views.”
Numbers on a screen shouldn’t dictate the quality of our work, our success and our value
Social media should be based on quality, not social approval. There needs to be a website created where content is not based upon how many “likes” or “views” a person gets, but based upon the quality of their content.
Exterior motives such as gaining social approval are just “ideas of success.”
Social media can become detrimental to human health and ability.

The author concludes that there should be a form of media created that isn’t based on views, likes and followers. Teenagers seek validation and therefore insecurity through likes and followers.

Another idea, by Raising Children Network/http://raisingchildren.net.au (date 26/6/15) states that media influences do play a part in shaping the behaviour of teenagers. Once the individual is more aware of media influence, they’ll be able to handle media pressure better.

Media influence on teenagers can be deliberate, for example, a large proportion of advertising is directed at children and teenagers. The result of this is that youth in general are becoming gradually more aware about brands and images.
Other types of influential media upon youth appear to be more indirect. In recent years; advertising, magazines, music videos and television have portrayed to their audience unrealistic images of women, with their bodies being advertised as “sexy,” which is a recent trend in the over sexualisation of content.
Indirect media influences are suggestive in ways that they portray “standard” ways to look and behave. For example; suggesting to teenagers that violence in video games and coarse language in song lyrics is a “normal” way to act.
Body image is influenced by many factors – such as peer attitudes, the fashion industry, family environment, ability or disability and one of the most influential forms - mass media (e.g.: social media and advertising.)
When unrealistic “thin” body types are portrayed in the media, the impact upon teenagers can be influential, affecting their own body image and dieting patterns. This is even more prominent when there is no one around to tell the individual that they disagree with the messages that media portrays, such as “thin is beautiful.”
The ideal body image portrayed by the media has subjected teenagers to the idea of plastic surgery. For example, there has been an increased rise in teenage girls wanting laser hair removal and breast implants, while boys are becoming increasingly interested in muscle enhancers (soft tissue fillers.)
Media isn’t all negative, it can be a positive influence on teenagers. For example, young people can also pick up vital health messages that the media advertises; such as healthy eating, exercising and preventing youth depression and suicide.
An influential celebrity role model who displays a positive lifestyle to their audience can be a powerful media influence. A role model who educates about their hard work and success can provide encouragement, particularly if their lifestyle or behaviour is respectable.
Teenagers should learn to interpret media by asking themselves some questions about it, to understand what they are influenced by. These could be questions such as:

≥ Who’s behind the image?

≥ What’s their motivation?

≥ What do they want from you?

≥ How does the advertisement make you feel and why?

The author concludes that even though there are solid links between media content that results in harmful teenage behaviour, teenagers don’t necessarily take to mind everything the media portrays to their audience – in fact, teenagers can actually be savvy users of media messages. Adult responsibility should involve helping young adolescents understand that exposure to media influences is part of present life, but there are vital ways in helping youth handle media influences.

In relation, research conducted by Deakin University Researcher Dr Michiko Weinmann/ http://www.deakin.edu.au/news/latest-media-releases/2015-media-releases-archives/unmasking-perceptions-of-cosmetic-surgery-among-young-women (Date: 10/11/15) is to use her new project, ‘Operation Belle,’ to research whether an increasing number of young women have turned to cosmetic surgery, due to the rise in celebrity and “selfie” culture.

Cosmetic surgery which is defined as ‘elective surgery for aesthetic purposes,’ is a topic in which teachers, parents and even peers can find very complex.
A young person’s cultural background, school involvement, friends and appearance are a list of major factors that contribute to the development of finding and defining a young person’s identity, which is a vital pathway to growing up.
Social media, magazines, advertisements, reality television and videos are some of the mediums that constantly remind young people every day that we live in a surgical society.
The list of cosmetic surgeries is forever gradually expanding, with young Australians being affected more than ever before.
Advertisements linked to interviews with cosmetic surgeons, clinics and even ‘before and after’ pics, constantly fill magazines with articles that are linked to cosmetic surgeries.
The Australasian College of Cosmetic Surgery has revealed that the beauty industry in Australia is a big business, with Australians each year spending around $1 billion on cosmetic procedures.

The author concludes that there are increasing numbers of women who are turning to cosmetic surgery in the pursuit for individuality, attractiveness and a sense of identity.

In addition, Kids Helpline/http://www.kidshelpline.com.au/grownups/news-research/hot-topics/body-image.php (Date: 10/2014) suggests that body image has the ability to be separate from the physical appearance of one’s own body, with the example being that an individual who fits within an average weight range and who is classed as “healthy,” may distinguish themselves as being overweight.

Body image can be defined as “one’s sensitivity, opinions and outlooks about how they view their body”, including how outside individuals may perceive their figure, and how they believe their body fits in with ‘society’s expectations.’
To have a positive body image, one will feel confident in their appearance and comfortable in their own skin, while a negative body image results in the individual viewing their body as undesirable.
When an individual has a positive body image and a healthy state of mind, this leads to an increased freedom and confidence in their interaction with others to indulge in life’s experiences and challenges. Having a negative body image may hold a person back, as there is a strong link between poor body image and low self-esteem.
Factors that can affect body discontent can include:

≥ Skin appearance – skin colour, birth marks, pigmentation, acne and scaring

≥ Hair – colour and/or style

≥ Physical Defects

≥ Disabilities

≥ Cultural diversity that could be linked to a particular style of clothing and/ or appearance
Young children will intake substantial messages about body image and eating habits from adults of the family that they are growing up in, as young people have not yet had the exposure to different viewpoints for them to form their own judgement, therefore making these receiving messages significant.
Direct comments about a child’s physical image are passed down through parents and/or carers, linking to how these adults model their attitudes and values about physical appearance.
Mass media has led to unrealistic expectations in regards to the “ideal female body,” which in Western society is often characterised as “being thin.” Due to this, a large percentage of a female’s body image problems are more likely to lead towards losing weight, while for males, the “ideal body” focuses on being lean and muscular which leads to males focusing on developing a more well-built upper body.
In mass media, young adolescents are often seeking an “ideal image” which is unrealistic, due to professional photographers using certain techniques to make models appear “more beautiful,” through the use of lighting and effects. Other tricks include but are not limited to the use of Photoshop and printing techniques to portray a person in having perfect skin, teeth, hair, body etc.
Australian data dictates that up to 1 in 3 young Australians have body image issues, particularly amongst adolescent females and young adults.
Issues regarding body image are more likely to arise in males around the time of early adolescence, while in females these concerns occur in mid to late adolescence.
Males with a poor body image are divided between those who want to lose weight and those who wish to gain weight to increase muscle.
Poor self-esteem in relation to issues surrounding body image can be linked to depression, anxiety, mood swings or all-round negative behaviour.

The author concludes that it is considered “normal” for a young person to be thoroughly aware of their body image, due to the arrival of puberty and the physical body images that can begin to attract the attention of others. However, when the urge to “fit in” becomes the prime purpose, this can lead to severe unhappiness that has the potential to result in disorders such as substance abuse, binge eating, anorexia and bulimia.

Another idea by Cosima Marriner/http://www.essentialkids.com.au/life/technology/impact-of-social-media-on-teen-girls-20130722-2qe3x is that teenage girls are more likely to develop low self-esteem due to being displeased with their bodies, as a result of spending more time on social media. In an online world where everything’s a “competition,” for example, the number of likes an individual get on a Facebook picture, or through the act of posting “weight loss selfies” to Instagram, teenage girls are vulnerable to be caught up in their virtual headspace.

When interviewing over 1000 high school girls, Flinder’s University researchers found that due to social media, conversations about an individual’s physical appearance are “exaggerated,” due to the involvement of peers.
90% of girls in Years 10 and 11 who were interviewed had a Facebook account and were regularly uploading pictures of themselves to it, with an average of 475 “friends.” The average time spent on social media was roughly 2 and a half hours per day.
46% of girls who were surveyed stated that they were displeased with how much they currently weigh, even though 80% very considered to be within the healthy weight range. These negative feelings have resulted from the overuse of social media websites, according to Amy Slater from Flinders University's School Of Psychology.
According to Social Media Commentator Melinda Tankard Reist, negative health outcomes in teenage girls can be the result of seeking self-affirmation on social media, as often there is a constant feeling of the need to be “on display.” Today’s society provides affirmation to exhibitionism as the population is constantly judged on their physical appearance.
Ms Tankard Reist also states that television is a prime influence on how media can influence young adolescences. ‘Australia’s Next Top Model’ conducted a “selfie competition” where contenders as young as 13 were invited to post a selfie using the hashtag #antmselfie to win a VIP Pass to the show’s final and feature in the ‘Cosmopolitan’ magazine. This is a leading example of how media these days prioritises looks, with over 37000 girls entering this competition.
Dr Slater states that seeking self – affirmation and positive comments from peers are of great significance as a lot of conversations lead to the talk of one’s physical appearance.
By teenage girl’s copying what others are doing in regards to media, it leads to the individual always trying to look at themselves through the eyes of others, creating a situation where self-worth is less valued.

The author concludes that social media can have a stronger and more authoritative influence on teenage girls more so than traditional media, due to the key elements being so influential and allowing for more open channels of communication.

In relation, The National Eating Disorders Collaboration/http://www.nedc.com.au/body-image (Date: 24/04/15) is that a poor body image begins through an internal process but can become further prominent due to the influence of external factors such as family, friends, teachers and mass media, resulting in a drastic impact into how the individual feels about themselves mentally and physically

There are four aspects of body image:

≥ PERCEPTUAL – How an individual “sees” themselves in physical form, but might not be correct to what their body actually looks like. A common example is someone viewing themselves as overweight, when in fact they are actually underweight.

≥ AFFECTIVE – The level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction an individual feels about their weight, size and shape of their singular body parts.

≥ COGNITIVE – How an individual thinks about their body which in some cases cause a person to develop a “fixation” with their weight and the physical appearance of their body. An example is when an individual believes that they would have an increased level of self - confidence if they were slimmer or well-built.

≥ BEHAVIOURABLE – Behaviour patterns in individuals which reflect how they feel about their body. For example, an individual who feels guilty about the way they look, may choose to cut off themselves from others in society due them feeling discontented with their physical form. However, severe cases can result in an individual developing destructive behaviours to try and change their appearance. For example, engaging in excessive exercising and dieting.
Having a positive body image is vital as it allows an individual to build a barrier in protecting themselves against eating disorders, as by having the self – confidence in their own body, they will mentally appear as more “resilient,” as they are able to accept, appreciate and admire their own body.
A positive body image will help improve one’s:

≥ SELF - ESTEEM – Prescribes how an individual feels about themselves which can contribute to multiple aspects of life to promote all aspects of wellbeing and general happiness.

≥ SELF – ACCEPTANCE – Makes a person feels content with their physical form which results in them being less likely to be affected by the unrealistic images that the media portrays, which convey that individuals in society have to portray a certain “look.”

≥ HEALTHY OUTLOOK AND BEHAVIOURS – When an individual has a substantial knowledge of what is needed to adequately fuel their body, they will find it easier to lead a healthier lifestyle by indulging in balanced practices and attitudes relating to the consumption of food.
A higher risk of poor body image can occur when an individual is surrounded in an environment obsessed by appearance, or when negative feedback about their exterior is made known to them.
All members of society are subjected to unrealistic and inaccessible images which are portrayed by different forms of media such as the internet, TV, magazines and advertising. Often these images are deemed “unobtainable” due to the fact that they are frequently fabricated by art teams, stylists and edited through Photoshop methods. Poor body image often occurs when individuals feel as though they can’t physically “compare” to the people they see blasted through mass media, resulting in destruction to the individual’s psychological and physical wellbeing. Due to this, the media is a major external contributor to poor body image among individuals.
Influences that can link to certain individuals developing a poor body image:

≥ LOW self-esteem and/or depression

≥ TEASING – Individuals who are teased about their weight and/or appearance

≥ BODY SIZE – In a society where being “skinny” is seen as a body ideal, often people who are seen as “larger” may be at risk of developing a poor body image.

≥ FRIENDS AND FAMILY – Individuals who are exposed to role models in their life voicing body image anxieties and showcasing damaging weight loss behaviours, regardless of what their physical state may be.

≥ GENDER – On average, adolescent females are more prominent to develop body dissatisfaction than adolescent males. But there is evidence that males are imminently approaching a similar level of body dissatisfaction to match those who are female.

AGE – Late childhood and adolescence are usually the prime time where an individual’s feelings regarding their body are developed. In contrast though, feelings of body dissatisfaction have the ability to affect anyone, no matter what age the person is.

The author concludes that it is vital to understand that everyone is different in regards to their weight, shape, size and physical appearance. While some aspects of the body cannot be changed due to genetics, for example a person’s height, muscle build-up and bone structure, it is important for an individual to learn to be more accepting of the body that they have been given, as this is a key step to challenging “beauty ideals.”

Another idea by The Better Health Channel/https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/body-image-and-diets (Date: 04/13) states that an individual who develops a poor body image is likely to participate in over exercising and dieting, as well as being at risk to developing eating disorders such as bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa and a binge eating disorder, which can be linked to other mental health issues such as poor self-esteem, depression and anxiety.

Australian’s each day spend up to $1 000 000 on “fad” diets which not only can be nutritionally unsafe, but can sometimes have very little effect on the person’s actual weight.
Dieting frequently can lead to:

≥ Over-excising

≥ Poor health

≥ Developing depression and anxiety

≥ developing an eating disorder

≥ Binge eating

≥ Not in taking enough nutrients per day due to the restriction of food intake

≥ Purging food or abusing laxatives
45% of women 23% of men who fit within a healthy weight range think they are overweight
More than 20% of women who are actually underweight, exploit dieting as a weight loss method with the belief that they are in fact overweight
There are links between culture and body image. An example being that research has shown that Asian women who have migrated to Australia, are more likely to take on dieting and body image habits that are not common in Asia.
Research has proven that nearly every young woman and almost half of all middle aged women have tried dieting at least once in the attempt to lose weight.
Men in today’s society are under a growing amount of pressure to have the “ideal” body that is portrayed in the media. Statistics show:

≥ 17% of men are currently undertaking a “fad” diet

≥ More men today than ever are undergoing cosmetic surgery

≥ A rapidly increasing amount of men are purchasing grooming and cosmetic products
Frequent dieting will not remove all the fat that is on a women’s hips and thighs, as it is considered “normal” to have a sizeable amount of fat on those parts, as it is vital for:

≥ Healthy skin, nails, eyes and hair

≥ Fertility and breastfeeding

≥ To prevent osteoporosis

The author concludes that Dieting (as long as the person understands healthy eating behaviours) can be beneficial to those who want to remain within the healthy weight range by engaging in practices to eat a nutritional diet. However, constant dieting can be damaging to a person’s physical and mental wellbeing and can lead to depression, especially if the individual already had a poor body image to start off with.

CONCLUSION OF LITERATURE REVIEW:

Throughout my secondary research, I have been able to complete in depth further study to allow myself to gain a deeper insight into the topic that I have chosen for my IRP “to what extend does the media influence the formation of youth’s identity.” While I acknowledge that the topic chosen is very broad, my literature review has allowed me to draw out the main components which are heavily researched in my area of study.

SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE: Throughout my secondary research, it became clearly evident that due to the rise in social media, the urge to be “socially accepted” has become more prominent than ever. Two of the sources of information that I studied confirmed my suspicion that the more time spent specifically on social media, the more likely the individual is to develop issues surround self-esteem. According to the article written by Cosima Marriner, she writes that social media every day is having a more drastic effect on individuals in society, particularly those who are younger and more vulnerable. She further explains that research undertaken by researchers at Flinder’s University reveals that a large majority of every day conversations held by these adolescent girls are as the result of social media. These conversations can consist of anything, from the amount of “likes” on Facebook that a fellow peer has, to scrutinizing the physical appearance of one of their “friends” in the photo that she posted on Instagram. In a school yard filled with some particularly “catty” young adolescent girls who are spending on average, roughly 2 and a half hours per day on social media, there is a constant feeling going around of the neediness to feel “accepted,” as adolescents today are growing up in a society where individuals are rewarded for exhibitionism, and one’s physical appearance is “exaggerated” in conversation, due to the prominence of social media. This results in adolescents very easily becoming vulnerable as they are caught up in their online presence of social media. However, not all adolescents in today’s society are willing to keep engaging in the online pressures of today’s world. Another form of literature that I studied followed an 18 year old female named ‘Essena O’Niell’ from the Sunshine Coast, who quit social media and therefore, quit her career as a life-style blogger and model. Before she quit, O’Niell had accumulated over 500 000 Instagram followers, more than 250 000 YouTube subscribers and was signed with a modelling agency while she promoted well-known brands. Since making the decision to switch off social media, she has launched her own website and personal blogging platform where she reveals the truth behind her previous social media life, revealing that in one photo she “took over 100 photos in similar poses trying to make her stomach look good.” Are these the levels where teenagers today feel as though they have to go above and beyond to be accepted as “beautiful” within our society? But this is where it stopped for O’Niell, as she explained in a tearful video that she was addicted to the attention and the money that she gained from her “hidden advertising” on Instagram, where she promoted bikini’s, cosmetic products and clothing, resulting in her living her life “through a screen” and that she didn’t know who she truly was anymore. Since deleting all her social media networks, the launch of her website and blogging platform has allowed her to write and create visual content that isn’t dictated by “likes” or “views” as there is no place for this form of communication to occur on her new platform. Any video content that is now created through her website is completely unedited and “raw,” which allows her to get her message across that an adolescent’s value these days shouldn’t be based off numbers on a screen, but instead the quality of the content created should speak for itself. By removing herself from all her social media platforms, the creation of her new website allows her to still create written and audio content, but without having to have that “social” interaction with others, as there is no way for an audience to communicate to her throughout her website. She has continually advised all her viewers to step back from social media, as it can hinder human health and capability and trying to gain social approval is a false idea of success.

COSMETIC SURGERY: Another reoccurring issue in the battle between the media and its influences on different aspects of youth was the rising talk of cosmetic surgery. In multiple sources of literature that I studied, this controversial topic came up multiple times throughout my research, catching my attention as it became obvious that more and more young individuals are choosing to go under the knife to alter their physical appearance. An article by ‘The Raising Children Network’ stated that because the media has constantly portrayed to young adolescents the “ideal body” for males and females, with this exposing to teenagers the “want” and the “need” to participate in cosmetic practices to achieve that ideal figure, suggesting that there has been a rapid increase in the amount of teenage girls wanting breast implants and laser hair removal. But now there has even been a growing trend in teenage boys wanting to alter their appearance, with the media placing an importance on biceps and big muscles, resulting in the increased interest of muscle enhancers. Another source of information conducted by Deakin University Researcher Dr Michiko Weinmann, suggests that because media platforms every day are glamorizing cosmetic surgery through advertisements, social media and reality television, young adolescents are constantly reminded that we do live in a surgical society that celebrates physical appearance over self-worth. Advertising in magazines has become a great platform for companies positing “before and after” cosmetic surgery pictures, linking to the rise in “celebrity” and “selfie” culture, to assist individuals in their pursuit for attractiveness and to help develop their sense of identity.

BODY IMAGE: One of the major components of my secondary research has been finding out more information about how the media can influence an adolescent’s body image. While many of my resources listed the facts about how having a poor body image can seriously affect an individual’s physical and mental wellbeing, I was surprised to learn the extent of the damage that can occur, or the fact that an increasingly alarming number of males are participating in fad diets as they feel that the media portrays men in a more “masculine” fashion – to look lean and muscular to develop a well-built upper body. The statement that “only females feel self-conscious” is a complete myth, as throughout my reading, I have studied the statistics of men who are suffering from a low self-esteem in regards to their body. One of my resources ‘The Better Health Channel’ gave me a great insight into the facts that I didn’t know previously about body image issues in males. The statistics show that 17% of men are currently undertaking a diet that is considered a “fad,” while buying grooming and cosmetic products, and even considering utilizing the service of plastic surgery. But why though? One of the main culprits lowering men’s self-esteem is the media, especially the use of advertising to make men feel pressured to have to confine to physically look a certain way. However, even though there is evidence to show that an increasing number of males these days are feeling the pressures of “society’s beauty ideals,” there has been more research conducted surrounding the topic of body image issues in females. Could this be because of the existing stigma that males don’t ever feel self-conscious about their body? Referring back to the research conducted by ‘The Better Health Channel,’ the statistics surrounding body image issues in females is alarming, as research has shown that almost all young women have tried dieting at least once in an attempt to alter their weight. Not only that, but up to 45% of all women who fit within a perfectly healthy weight range believe that they are overweight, putting these individuals at risk of developing poor self-esteem, depression, anxiety and even eating disorders like bulimia nervosa. Another worrying fact is that many of these women haven’t been educated on appropriate eating and exercising behaviors that can be used to adequately fuel their body, and because of that, are participating in excessive dieting and exercising habits. This can have a detrimental effect on their physical and mental wellbeing. In both sexes ‘The National Eating Disorders Foundation’ discusses the effects of mass media being one of the biggest external contributors of body dissatisfaction, through the use of excessive advertising, magazines, TV shows and the internet. Unfortunately, what many young people don’t realize is that these images are often fabricated though the use of technology to utilize editing programs and lighting effects, to make a person appear as though they have the “ideal body,” regardless of if they are male or female. While the media keeps blasting unobtainable images to young, vulnerable people in our society, there will continue to be a climb in the rate of adolescents who are experiencing destructive negative body image behaviours, impacting how the individual feels about themselves, mentally and physically.